Language is a system that human beings use to communicate ideas, feelings, and information through speech and writing. Different scholars have defined language in various ways, but all definitions emphasize communication, symbols, and human interaction.
According to Syane and Jindal (2007), language is a system of symbols based on arbitrary conventions. Hall (1969) explains language as an institution through which people communicate using habitual oral and auditory symbols. Bloch and Trager (1942) define language as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used by a social group for cooperation. Wardhaugh (1972) also describes language as a system of vocal symbols for human communication.
In general, language can be understood as a collection of symbols and signs that are organized according to accepted rules within a society. These symbols help people convey thoughts, ideas, and messages from one person to another.
The most suitable definition of language is:
Language is a system of arbitrary and conventional vocal symbols through which thoughts and messages are communicated from a speaker or writer to a listener or reader.
Elements of Language
System
Language is called a system because it is made up of organized units that work together in a specific order. Small units combine to form larger ones.
Example:
- Phonemes → syllables → morphemes → words → phrases → clauses → sentences → paragraphs
Language also contains different systems such as:
- Sound system
- Structural system
- Meaning system
For example:
- The boy has been here since yesterday.
- He left your book in my room last week.
These sentences follow a proper grammatical arrangement of subject, verb, object, and adverbials.
Arbitrary Nature
Language is arbitrary because there is no natural relationship between words and the objects they represent.
For example:
- The word “dog” has no direct similarity to the actual animal.
- The word “table” does not resemble the object itself.
Different societies use different symbols to represent the same objects or ideas.
Vocal Nature
Language is mainly vocal because it is produced through speech sounds made by organs such as the mouth, nose, and throat.
Symbolic Nature
Language uses symbols to represent ideas, objects, and experiences.
The symbols include:
- Acoustic symbols (speech sounds)
- Graphic symbols (letters and spellings)
Spoken language uses sounds, while written language uses letters.
Conventional Nature
Language is conventional because it is accepted and understood by members of a particular speech community.
Message
Language carries messages such as ideas, opinions, feelings, and information from one person to another. Without a message, communication cannot occur.
Human Aspect
Language is unique to human beings. Although animals communicate through signals and sounds, they do not use language in the same way humans do.
A Language and Community Language
Meaning of a Language
A language is a specific system of communication used and understood by a particular speech community.
Examples:
- Kichagga is used by the Chagga people.
- Kingoni is used by the Ngoni people.
- Kiswahili is used in Tanzania.
- English is widely spoken in Europe, America, and Australia.
Features of a Language
Specific to a Community
A language belongs to a particular group of people who use it for communication.
Related to Culture
Language expresses the culture of a community. Culture and language are closely connected.
Dynamic Nature
Language changes and develops as culture changes.
Influence from Other Languages
Languages can change through interaction with foreigners during trade, tourism, or colonization.
Unique Writing System
Each language may have its own spelling and writing system.
Different Grammar and Pronunciation
Languages differ in pronunciation and grammatical structure.
Language Families
Some languages belong to the same language family because they originated from a common ancestral language.
For example:
- Kiswahili
- Kisukuma
- Kihaya
- Kinyakyusa
These belong to the Bantu language family.
Difference Between Language and A Language
Language
- Refers to all human communication systems in general.
- It is universal.
- It does not belong to one specific group.
A Language
- Refers to one specific communication system.
- It belongs to a particular speech community.
- It reflects the culture of its users.
Another difference is that language as a general concept is considered stable, while a specific language changes over time through cultural interaction.
Unique Features of Human Language
Human language has special characteristics that distinguish it from animal communication.
Duality
Human language operates at two levels:
- Sound level
- Meaningful structure level
Individual sounds combine to form meaningful words.
Example:
- /b/, /i/, /n/ can form “bin” or “nib”.
Productivity
Humans can create and understand completely new sentences that they have never heard before.
Arbitrariness
There is no natural connection between words and their meanings.
Interchangeability
People can both send and receive messages. A speaker can become a listener and vice versa.
Displacement
Humans can talk about past, present, future, and distant events.
Cultural Transmission
Language is learned from society and culture, not inherited biologically.
Specialization
Each society develops language according to its environment and experiences.
Discreteness
Sounds in language are clearly distinct.
Example:
- Pig and big differ because of /p/ and /b/.
Reflexiveness
Human beings can use language to talk about language itself.
Competence and Performance
Competence
This is the knowledge a person has about language rules and proper usage.
It includes:
- Grammar and vocabulary knowledge
- Knowledge of communication rules
- Appropriate language use in different situations
Performance
This refers to the actual use of language in speaking and writing.
Performance may sometimes be affected by factors such as stress, illness, or tiredness.
Importance of Competence and Performance
Understanding Language Ability
They show that people have internal knowledge of language rules.
Improvement Through Teaching
Language ability can improve through effective teaching methods.
Language Knowledge Exceeds Usage
People usually know more language than they actually use.
Language Follows Rules
Language users can identify and correct grammatical mistakes because language is rule-governed.
Functions of Language
Referential or Communicative Function
Language is used to pass information and communicate ideas.
Expressive or Emotive Function
Language expresses emotions, feelings, and attitudes.
Directive Function
Language influences people’s actions through commands, requests, or warnings.
Phatic Function
Language helps maintain social relationships through greetings and polite expressions.
Example:
- “How are you?”
- “Nice day today.”
Poetic Function
Language is used for entertainment and artistic expression such as literature and drama.
Metalinguistic Function
Language is used to discuss or explain language itself.
Declarative Function
Language is used in ceremonies, courts, meetings, and religious activities to make official declarations.
Regulatory Function
Language is used to control behavior, warn people, or maintain discipline.
Language Policy in Tanzania
Tanzania’s language policy states that Kiswahili should be used as the medium of instruction in primary schools, while English is used from secondary school to university level.
Both Kiswahili and English are official languages in Tanzania. However, there has been continuous debate about which language should be the main medium of instruction.
Arguments Supporting English
International Importance
English is widely used in global business and international communication.
Developed Vocabulary
English has a rich vocabulary, especially in science and technology.
Availability of Learning Materials
Many academic books are written in English.
Global Language
English is no longer viewed only as a colonial language because it is spoken worldwide.
Broadens Knowledge
Learning English exposes students to different cultures and ideas.
Arguments Supporting Kiswahili
Avoiding Colonial Influence
Some believe learning through English promotes colonial thinking.
Better Understanding
Students understand concepts better when taught in a familiar language.
Success of Other Countries
Countries like Korea use their own languages in education and still achieve technological development.
Better English Teaching
English should be taught as a subject rather than used as the medium of instruction.
African Identity
Kiswahili represents African culture and identity.
Any Language Can Develop
No language is naturally superior in science or technology. Kiswahili can also develop scientific vocabulary.
Existing Classroom Practice
Teachers already mix Kiswahili and English in classrooms, so formalizing Kiswahili use would be practical.
A Language / Speech Community
A speech community refers to a group of people who share and use the same language or language variety for communication. Members of the community understand one another because they use a common language system.
Examples include:
- The Swahili-speaking community in East Africa
- The Bengali-speaking community in Bangladesh
- The Hehe-speaking community in Iringa Region
Language Varieties
A language variety is any form or type of language that develops because of differences among users or uses of language. Language varieties mainly arise due to two factors:
- The user of the language
- The use of the language
There are two major types of language varieties:
Register
Register is a language variety that depends on how language is used in different situations.
It is influenced by factors such as:
- Occupation
- Topic of discussion
- Social status
- Medium of communication
- Function of communication
For example, the language used by doctors, lawyers, journalists, and teachers differs according to their professions.
Dialect
Dialect is a language variety that depends on the users of the language. It is influenced by:
- Social class
- Geographical location
- Age
- Gender
- Profession
Dialects differ mainly in:
- Vocabulary
- Pronunciation (accent)
- Grammar
The most noticeable difference is usually pronunciation.
Types of Dialects
Sociolect or Social Dialect
This is a dialect associated with a particular social class or group.
Examples include language varieties used by:
- Educated and uneducated people
- Rich and poor people
- Upper, middle, and lower social classes
Social dialects are influenced by factors such as education, economic status, and traditions.
Geographical or Regional Dialect
This dialect develops according to geographical area or region.
Examples include:
- British English
- American English
- Australian English
- Scottish English
In Tanzania, examples include:
- Kimachame
- Kibosho
- Kirombo
Idiolect
An idiolect is the unique language style of an individual person in speech or writing.
It is identified through:
- Choice of words
- Accent
- Personal expressions
- Command of language
Difference Between a Language and a Dialect
Difference in Size
A language generally has more speakers and covers a larger geographical area than a dialect.
For example:
- English is spoken worldwide.
- American English is spoken mainly in America.
Difference in Prestige
A language usually has a higher social status than a dialect.
People often feel more prestigious being associated with a language than with a dialect.
Difference in Mutual Intelligibility
Speakers of different dialects of the same language can usually understand each other, while speakers of different languages may fail to communicate effectively.
For example:
- British English and American English speakers understand each other because they are dialects of English.
- English and Swahili speakers may not understand each other because they are different languages.
Causes of Language Varieties
Geographical Differences
People living in different geographical areas tend to speak differently. Mountains, rivers, and forests may reduce interaction between groups, leading to language variation.
Examples:
- Nigerian English
- British English
- American English
Occupation
Different professions use different styles of language and special vocabulary known as jargon.
For example:
- Lawyers use terms such as “adjourn” and “commence.”
- Journalists use expressive and attractive language styles.
Age Differences
People of different age groups use language differently.
- Children use simpler language.
- Youth often use slang.
- Older people may prefer more formal language.
Gender Differences
Men and women may differ in pronunciation, tone, and choice of words.
- Women often use more polite and careful language.
- Men may use harsher or more direct expressions.
Social Class
Different social groups develop different language styles.
For example:
- Educated people often use standard language.
- Uneducated groups may use non-standard forms.
Individual Differences
Each individual has unique speaking habits, including:
- Voice quality
- Word choice
- Expressions
- Gestures
These differences contribute to language variation.
Basic Concepts of Language
First Language (Mother Tongue)
This is the first language a child acquires naturally from parents or family during childhood.
Examples:
- Kihehe
- Kingoni
- Kinyakyusa
A first language is acquired mainly through listening and imitation.
Second Language
A second language is learned after acquiring the first language.
It is usually taught formally in school.
Examples:
- Kiswahili in Tanzania
- English in Kenya and Uganda
Foreign Language
A foreign language is a language borrowed from another country and used by non-native speakers.
Examples:
- English in many African countries
- French in African countries
- Kiswahili in Europe or America
National Language
A national language is officially chosen by a government to unite people and serve as a common means of communication within a country.
Examples:
- Kiswahili in Tanzania
- English in Kenya and Uganda
A national language is usually widely spoken and may also serve as an official language.
Official Language
An official language is used in government offices, courts, schools, hospitals, and other public institutions.
Examples in Tanzania:
- Kiswahili
- English
An official language must have standard grammar, pronunciation, and spelling.
Standard Language
A standard language is a language variety with accepted spelling, pronunciation, and grammatical rules.
It is usually:
- Used in schools
- Used in media
- Recognized as correct and prestigious
- Described in dictionaries and grammar books
Features of a Standard Language
Widely Used
It is not restricted to one region.
Taught in Schools
It serves as the model language for learners.
Associated with Prestige
It is often linked with educated or upper-class speakers.
Used in Media
It dominates newspapers, television, radio, and official communication.
How a Language Becomes Standardized
Selection
One dialect is chosen from many varieties.
Codification
Grammar books and dictionaries are developed to guide proper usage.
Elaboration
The functions of the language in education, government, and administration are expanded.
Acceptance
The language variety is officially accepted by society and government institutions.
Pidgin
A pidgin is a simplified language developed when groups with different languages need to communicate.
It is commonly formed for limited purposes such as:
- Trade
- Business
- Work
Types of Pidgin
Temporary or Marginal Pidgin
This exists for a short period and disappears when contact ends.
Expanded Pidgin
This lasts longer and may even be used in media, literature, or government activities.
Example:
- Tok Pisin in Papua New Guinea
Characteristics of Pidgin
- It develops through contact between groups.
- It has no native speakers.
- It serves limited communication purposes.
- It has simple grammar.
- Its vocabulary comes mainly from a dominant language.
- Speakers often use gestures and signs to support communication.
Creole
A creole develops when a pidgin becomes the first language of a community or new generation.
It becomes a fully developed language with native speakers.
Examples:
- Jamaican Creole
- Krio in Sierra Leone
- Gullah in the USA
Characteristics of Creole
- It develops from pidgin.
- It has native speakers.
- It performs all language functions.
- It has more developed grammar and vocabulary than pidgin.
- It becomes a permanent language in society.
International Language
An international language is used worldwide for communication among nations.
Currently, the major international languages are:
- English
- French
Factors That Make a Language International
Large Number of Speakers
The language must have many native and non-native speakers.
Wide Geographical Spread
It should be used in many countries and continents.
Political and Economic Influence
Countries using the language should have strong global influence.
Use in Science and Technology
The language should be widely used in education, literature, science, and business.
Acceptance by International Organizations
The language should be recognized internationally, especially by organizations such as the United Nations.
Lingua Franca
A lingua franca is a common language used by people with different native languages for everyday communication.
Examples:
- Kiswahili in Tanzania
- English globally
Diglossia
Diglossia is a situation where two languages or language varieties exist side by side in a society, each serving different functions.
High Variety
Used in formal situations such as:
- Education
- Government
- Official communication
Low Variety
Used in informal situations such as:
- Daily conversations
- Friendly interactions
In Tanzania:
- English is often considered the high variety.
- Kiswahili may function as both high and low depending on the context.
- Vernacular languages are usually considered low varieties.
Bilingualism
Bilingualism is the ability of a person to use two languages.
A bilingual person may:
- Speak two languages fluently
- Understand one language better than another
- Use different languages in different situations
- Read and write in one or both languages
Who Is a Linguist?
A linguist is a person who studies language scientifically.
A linguist may study:
- Grammar
- Sounds
- Meaning
- Language structure
A linguist does not necessarily have to speak the language being studied.
English in Tanzania
English has several important roles in Tanzania.
International Communication
English is used in international meetings and global communication.
Foreign Language
English originated from Britain and was introduced during colonial rule.
Medium of Instruction
English is used in secondary schools and universities.
Official Language
English and Kiswahili are both official languages in Tanzania.
School Subject
English is taught from primary school to university.
Transition Toward Second Language Status
In urban areas, English is increasingly becoming a second language because many children first learn Kiswahili.
Significance of Language in Human Society
Language as a Unifying Factor
A common language promotes unity and togetherness.
Example:
- Kiswahili has helped unite Tanzanians.
Language as Cultural and National Identity
Language reflects culture, traditions, and nationality.
Language and Social Stratification
Language may show social differences such as:
- Educated vs uneducated
- Rich vs poor
- Urban vs rural people
Language as a Mirror of Culture
Language preserves beliefs, customs, and experiences.
Language and Social Development
Language helps in:
- Education
- Leadership
- Health services
- Media communication
Language as a Communication Tool
Language enables people to exchange ideas, information, and feelings through speaking, writing, media, and other forms of communication.
Status of English in the World and Tanzania
English as an International Language
English is widely used across the world because of:
- Its large number of speakers
- Wide geographical use
- Political and economic influence
- Importance in science and technology
- Recognition by international organizations
English as a Native Language
English is a first language in countries such as:
- Britain
- USA
- Canada
- Australia
- New Zealand
English as a Second Language
English serves official and educational purposes in countries like:
- Kenya
- Nigeria
- India
- Zambia
English as a Foreign Language
In countries such as Japan and China, English is mainly used for international communication and education.
English as a National Language
English is a national language in some countries such as:
- Nigeria
- Zimbabwe
In countries with multiple important languages, the term “official language” is often preferred.
Conclusion
Language is a very important tool for human communication and social interaction. It enables people to share ideas, emotions, knowledge, and culture. Human language is unique because of its special features such as productivity, arbitrariness, and displacement.
In Tanzania, both Kiswahili and English continue to play important roles in education and communication. The debate on the medium of instruction shows the importance of balancing national identity with global communication needs.
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